Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org
Enhancing English reading skills
and self-regulated learning
through online collaborative
flipped classroom: a comparative
study
YingWang *
Department of Foreign Language, Liaocheng University Dongchang College, Liaocheng, Shandong,
China
Introduction: This research investigates the eectiveness of an online
collaborative flipped classroom approach in enhancing English reading skills and
self-regulated learning among Chinese English learners.
Methods: A total of 71 participants were divided into three instructional groups:
traditional instruction (TI) group (n = 24), flipped instruction (FI) group (n = 22),
and online flipped instruction (OFI) group (n = 25). The participants’ reading
comprehension ability was assessed using the reading section of the IELTS exam.
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) strategy use was evaluated using a questionnaire,
and weekly online quizzes assessed participants’ understanding of course
materials. Online learning behaviors were examined by considering online log-on
times. The instruction period lasted for 12 weeks, with pre-tests and post-tests
conducted to measure progress.
Results: The results indicated that both the FI and OFI groups outperformed the TI
group in terms of reading comprehension and self-regulated learning. Furthermore,
the OFI students demonstrated superior online learning behaviors and objective
performances compared to the FI students.
Discussion: These findings suggest that the integration of flipped and online
instruction methods holds promise for improving English reading skills and
enhancing self-regulated learning among Chinese English learners.
KEYWORDS
online collaborative flipped classroom, English reading skills, self-regulated learning,
online learning behaviors, EFL students
Introduction
Online learning has emerged as an adaptable, accessible, and ecient avenue for second
language (L2) acquisition, enabling learners to assume an active role in their language learning
journey (Lin etal., 2017; Basilaia and Kvavadze, 2020; Subedi etal., 2020; Pokhrel and Chhetri,
2021). In fact, the surge of online learning and digitalized education has sparked a transformative
shi in the educational landscape, ushering in an era of digital transformation within this
domain (Fisher, 2006; García-Morales etal., 2021; Zaris and Ehymiou, 2022; Fathi etal., 2023;
Widayanti and Meria, 2023). Amidst this evolving educational paradigm, a prominent innovative
strategy has garnered widespread recognition for its student-centered ethos–the ipped
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Mohammed Saqr,
University of Eastern Finland, Finland
REVIEWED BY
Alex Zarifis,
Université Paris Sciences et Lettres, France
Natanael Karjanto,
Sungkyunkwan University, Republic of Korea
Diana Akhmedjanova,
National Research University Higher School of
Economics, Russia
*CORRESPONDENCE
Ying Wang
RECEIVED 08 July 2023
ACCEPTED 27 September 2023
PUBLISHED 16 October 2023
CITATION
Wang Y (2023) Enhancing English reading skills
and self-regulated learning through online
collaborative flipped classroom: a comparative
study.
Front. Psychol. 14:1255389.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255389
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Wang. This is an open-access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The
use, distribution or reproduction in other
forums is permitted, provided the original
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are
credited and that the original publication in this
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution or
reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms.
TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 16 October 2023
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255389
Wang 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255389
Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org
classroom. is approach integrates various pedagogical elements,
encompassing cooperative and collaborative learning, peer-based
interactions, problem-solving techniques, and dynamic learning
methods, eectively craing an engaging online learning milieu
(Slavin, 1991; Topping and Ehly, 1998; Michael, 2006; Bergmann and
Sams, 2014; Hung, 2017; Fathi etal., 2021). rough this multifaceted
approach, the ipped classroom leverages technology to optimize
learning experiences and elevate learner engagement.
Flipped classrooms, a pedagogical approach gaining prominence
in the eld of English as a foreign language (EFL) instruction, are
characterized by a fundamental shi in the traditional classroom
paradigm. In the EFL context, a ipped classroom model involves the
strategic use of digital resources to invert the conventional sequence
of in-class instruction and out-of-class learning activities. is
instructional approach redenes the roles of both educators and
learners, fostering a more learner-centered and interactive
environment. In a typical ipped EFL classroom, educators curate and
deliver digital content, oen in the form of video lessons, online
modules, or multimedia materials, which cover core course topics and
language skills. Students are provided access to these resources prior
to in-person class sessions (Chen Hsieh etal., 2017). is pre-class
exposure to content equips learners with foundational knowledge,
enabling them to arrive at in-class sessions prepared and ready for
interactive engagement. During in-person class time, the focus shis
from traditional lecturing to collaborative and application-based
activities. Educators facilitate discussions, problem-solving exercises,
and hands-on language tasks that encourage active participation and
deeper comprehension. is approach capitalizes on the concept of
“homework in the classroom” and “classwork at home, “allowing
students to clarify doubts, seek clarication, and engage in peer-to-
peer learning under the guidance of their instructors (Mehring, 2016).
While the ipped classroom has been recognized as a benecial
approach for enhancing EFL learners’ linguistic competence
(O’Flaherty and Phillips, 2015; Shih and Huang, 2020; Turan and
Akdag-Cimen, 2020), limited research exists on its impact on other
variables, particularly reading comprehension–an essential skill for
academic knowledge acquisition–and self-regulated learning
strategies–an important tool for independent language learning (Vitta
and Al-Hoorie, 2020; Fathi and Rahimi, 2022). Research suggests
that an online ipped classroom model can enhance reading
comprehension (Karimi and Hamzavi, 2017; Samiei and Ebadi, 2021).
Reading comprehension involves constructing meaning by connecting
background knowledge with textual information, making it a vital
component of academic contexts (Yapp etal., 2021). Learners need to
develop the ability to read independently, even in online or home
settings, by engaging with texts at the word, sentence, and text levels,
seeking feedback from peers through discussions, accessing resources,
and reecting on their reading practices (Jeon and Yamashita, 2014).
Flipped classrooms, a pedagogical innovation gaining traction,
oen leverage homework assignments focused on reading materials
to cultivate learners’ autonomy, motivation, and a positive attitude
toward advancing reading comprehension skills (Fulgueras and
Bautista, 2020). Additionally, an intrinsic link exists between the
ipped classroom model and the cultivation of self-regulated learning
(SRL) strategies. Within this paradigm, learners are entrusted with the
responsibility of not only acquiring and organizing information but
also actively engaging in processes such as monitoring, reection, and
evaluation of their own learning practices (Lai and Hwang, 2016;
eobald, 2021). Crucially, ipped EFL classrooms prioritize the
learner’s autonomy and self-regulated learning. Learners are
encouraged to take ownership of their learning process, make
informed decisions regarding their study pace, and employ self-
regulation strategies to enhance their language acquisition process
(Lai and Hwang, 2016). is instructional method harnesses
technology to create a dynamic and adaptable learning ecosystem that
empowers students to assume agency over their language learning.
e inclusion of self-regulated learning as a variable of interest
alongside reading comprehension is guided by the understanding that
these two aspects might beintertwined in a symbiotic relationship.
Self-regulated learning encompasses a spectrum of behaviors,
motivations, and metacognitive functions, all of which converge as
students plan learning tasks, set attainable goals, track their progress,
and engage in thoughtful reection on their learning journey (Nilson,
2023). e strategic employment of self-regulated learning strategies,
especially within the context of online collaborative ipped
classrooms, is postulated to synergistically enhance reading
comprehension abilities. is study endeavors to unravel the interplay
between self-regulated learning and reading comprehension, shedding
light on how the deliberate cultivation of metacognitive strategies
through the ipped classroom model can potentially inuence
learners’ abilities to comprehend and engage with English text.
Despite separate investigations on the ipped classroom, reading
comprehension, and self-regulated learning strategies, further
research is needed to understand how online ipped classrooms can
inuence reading comprehension and self-regulated strategies. To ll
this research gap, this study aims to compare the eects of online
ipped instruction and traditional ipped instruction on L2 reading
comprehension and self-regulated learning among Chinese EFL
learners. Additionally, the study seeks to explore dierences in online
learning behaviors between the two instructional groups. By saturating
and conrming the existing literature and generating context-based
ndings, this study contributes to the expanding body of research on
the eectiveness of the ipped classroom model in L2 instruction.
Moreover, it provides valuable insights into the impact of ipped
instruction on self-regulated learning in an online setting. e
ndings of this study may have practical implications for language
teachers and curriculum developers interested in incorporating the
ipped classroom model into their language instruction.
Literature review
Flipped classroom
e numerous contributions of digital learning to motivate
students and make students active language learners were due to its
approachability, convenience, collaboration, and proximity of digital
devices that could enhance autonomy and add variations to the
learning process (Prensky, 2005; Murdock and Williams, 2011; Zaris
and Ehymiou, 2022). e same was advocated in Asian countries
since students widely used technological features to communicate
through text, video calls, and other features that could help them
interact and engage (Sweeny, 2010). Enhancing student-centered
approaches in the online environment, teachers can employ ipped
classroom model (FCM) to change traditional class activities. FCM
brings rich chances for learners, adds exibility and adaptability
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Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org
(Bergmann and Sams, 2014; Shih and Huang, 2020), and oers
practical tasks during class. Insights have arisen from diverse elds,
spanning social sciences (Wanner and Palmer, 2015; Lee and Wallace,
2018), engineering (Karabulut-Ilgu et al., 2018), and education
(Zainuddin and Attaran, 2016; Sommer and Ritzhaupt, 2018), all of
which increasingly advocate the eectiveness of the ipped classroom
in enhancing learners’ educational outcomes (Çakıroğlu and Öztürk,
2017; Liu etal., 2019). Furthermore, several dening characteristics
have been proposed for the ipped classroom, including interactive
learning (Crouch etal., 2007), real-time engagement (Novak, 2011),
inverted instruction (Davis, 2013), and the ipped learning model
(Bergmann and Sams, 2014).
Participating in online ipped classrooms might empower EFL
learners to cultivate autonomy in their decision-making and actions,
fostering a sense of ownership and control over their reading
experiences (Mehring, 2016; Fulgueras and Bautista, 2020). is
newfound autonomy motivates learners to proactively adapt and
rene their reading strategies to meet the demands of comprehension.
Moreover, learners develop a positive attitude toward the challenges
encountered during the reading process, embracing them as
opportunities for growth and deeper understanding (Jia etal., 2023).
Furthermore, online ipped classrooms oer EFL learners avenues for
improving their vocabulary and grammatical knowledge (Turan and
Akdag-Cimen, 2020). Prior to, during, or aer reading a text, learners
can leverage various techniques to enhance their language prociency
(Jiang etal., 2022). ese include consulting dictionaries to clarify
unfamiliar words, utilizing contextual clues to predict and deduce
meanings, engaging in discussions with peers to elicit insights, and
employing eective organizational strategies such as rehearsal,
rereading, and summarization (Mohammaddokht and Fathi, 2022).
By employing a range of cognitive and metacognitive strategies,
learners optimize their reading experience and foster a deeper
understanding of the text (Kintsch, 2012; Fischer and Yang, 2022).
rough the interactive and collaborative nature of online ipped
classrooms, EFL learners engage in a multifaceted approach to
reading. ey not only improve their linguistic competencies but also
develop critical thinking skills, cultivate eective study habits, and
foster a reective stance toward their reading practices (Fulgueras and
Bautista, 2020; Samiei and Ebadi, 2021). is comprehensive approach
to reading instruction nurtures learners’ condence, self-ecacy, and
motivation, positioning them for success in their language
learning journey.
e ipped classroom can indirectly use technology, mobile, and
computers outside of the classroom by watching videos of lectures,
working with multimedia with other peers to gain knowledge and
information (Kiernan and Aizawa, 2004; Stockwell, 2013; Amer,
2014), and have more considerable engagement in problem-solving,
knowledge-sharing, and information-exchange communicative
activities which are meaningful, along with personalized feedback in
the classroom (Kim etal., 2017; Zarrinabadi and Ebrahimi, 2018). e
benets of experiencing ipped classroom can bepositive perceptions
of being actively involved, having more engagement, enhancing
autonomy and critical thinking (Critz and Knight, 2013), and reaching
greater achievement (Butt, 2014). e empirical ndings also add
novel ndings to the literature. Accordingly, aer investigating 66
pre-service English language teachers, Gok etal. (2021) found that
there could bea considerable decline in FL classroom anxiety and
reading anxiety during the ipped classroom. In another study, Jiang
etal. (2021) revealed that learners’ demeanor and others’ assistance
could moderate the signicance of preparation to bemotivated and
involved in an online ipped classroom.
Numerous investigations have explored the inuence of ipped
classroom methodologies on the reading prociencies of EFL students
and associated variables. In their study, Mohammaddokht and Fathi
(2022) noted that ipped instruction produced substantial
enhancements in EFL reading capabilities while concurrently
alleviating reading-related apprehension. ese ndings imply the
potential utility of ipped instruction in the context of EFL reading
courses. Correspondingly, Fulgueras and Bautista (2020) scrutinized
the repercussions of ipped classrooms on the development of critical
thinking abilities and reading comprehension among senior high
school ESL learners in the Philippines. e outcomes indicated
advancements in critical thinking and reading comprehension
prociencies for both the ipped and conventional lecture-discussion
pedagogies. However, the ipped learning approach unequivocally
outperformed its traditional counterpart, underscoring its
eectiveness in fortifying these competencies.
Examining student viewpoints on the implementation of ipped
classrooms in EFL reading classes during the Covid-19 pandemic,
Nursyahdiyah etal. (2022) conducted a case study that unveiled the
ecacy of the ipped classroom strategy in enhancing the caliber of
EFL learning. Furthermore, it fostered greater autonomy among
students in their learning endeavors and positively inuenced the role
of technology in the realm of education. Yulian’s research (2021)
established that the adoption of the ipped classroom paradigm led to
enhancements in critical thinking skills pertinent to critical reading.
Students expressed favorable perceptions of this approach, placing
emphasis on self-guided learning as a principal advantage. Likewise,
Maharsi et al. (2021) scrutinized the integration of the ipped
classroom approach within an EFL private university in Indonesia.
e ndings underscored that conventional classrooms exhibited
augmented post-test scores in comparison to their ipped classroom
counterparts, potentially attributed to teacher-centric instructional
methods and technology-related variables. Nevertheless, a signicant
portion of students perceived ipped classrooms as catalysts for self-
reliant and dynamic learning experiences, with recognition of both
the merits and demerits associated with this approach.
In addition, Li et al. (2022) delved into the repercussions of
employing the ipped classroom paradigm within the sphere of EFL
instruction. eir inquiry strategically probed the manner in which
the ipped methodology can augment the acquisition of students’
communicative competence. e outcomes of their investigation cast
a revealing light upon the potential advantages associated with
integrating the ipped pedagogical approach into the domain of EFL
instruction, thus furnishing insights into the realms of inventive
language learning methodologies. In an exploration conducted by Liu
etal. (2022), salient revelations emerged regarding the ecacy of the
ipped framework in amplifying both writing prowess and the
utilization of metacognitive strategies. eir inquiry makes a notable
contribution to the comprehension of how the ipped classroom
conguration can positively inuence not only writing prociency but
also the maturation of metacognitive faculties in the context of
collaborative writing. Similarly, Shih and Huang (2020) centered their
inquiry on the adept application of metacognitive strategies among
college students in an EFL ipped classroom milieu. rough an
intricate analysis of students’ deliberate utilization of metacognitive
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Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org
strategies, their research enriches the understanding of the intricate
dynamics underlying students’ cognitive processes and strategic
approaches within the ipped learning milieu.
Su Ping etal. (2020) also embarked on a scholarly exploration of
the trajectory undertaken by EFL students within the framework of a
ipped classroom, with a specic focus on a writing-intensive class.
Hailing from the educational landscape of Malaysia, their research
presents a distinctive vantage point that brings to light the array of
experiences and outcomes that unfold for EFL learners immersed in
a writing-centered ipped classroom setting. Engaging in a methodical
appraisal, Turan and Akdag-Cimen (2020) executed a comprehensive
dissection of the implementation of the ipped classroom
methodology in the context of English language instruction. eir
amalgamation of research ndings furnishes substantial revelations
into the overarching ecacy and repercussions of the ipped
pedagogical approach in the domain of language learning. is
synthesis substantially enriches the broader comprehension of the
multi-faceted dimensions inherent in the implementation of the
ipped approach. Delving into the intersection of pedagogy and
technology, Jiang etal. (2021) undertake an investigative expedition
into the amalgamation of automatic speech recognition technology
within the structure of a ipped classroom. eir inquiry unveils the
latent potential of technology to elevate the complexity of EFL
learners’ oral language capabilities, eectively interweaving modern
technological advancements with the foundations of the ipped
learning milieu. In another study, Karjanto and Simon (2019) explored
the application of the ipped classroom methodology in a Calculus
course situated within a cultural context inuenced by Confucian
heritage. ey designed a theoretical framework that integrated
elements such as Bloom’s taxonomy, English-medium instruction, and
the incorporation of technology. eir instructional design
encompassed four distinct approaches, including variations of the
ipped classroom model. e quantitative analysis yielded notable
ndings, revealing a signicant discrepancy in examination scores,
particularly evident when comparing fully-ipped instruction to
single-topic ipped instruction. Furthermore, their qualitative
investigations underscored positive enhancements in student
engagement and interactions with instructors. Nevertheless, they also
unearthed challenges linked to language, cultural factors, competition,
and the adaptation to technological tools.
Taken together, these studies contribute to the literature by
examining the ecacy of the ipped classroom approach in enhancing
various dimensions of EFL learning, including communication,
writing, metacognition, critical thinking, and oral language
prociency. eir insights resonate with the evolving landscape of
language education, oering valuable guidance for educators seeking
to embrace innovative pedagogical strategies to meet the diverse needs
of language learners.
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension is a multifaceted skill that involves
various cognitive processes and strategies. According to Kintsch
(2012), reading comprehension entails the ability to connect existing
knowledge (schema) with the information presented in the text,
summarize key elements, draw appropriate conclusions, and enhance
understanding by posing probing questions. It encompasses the
process of constructing meaning from written texts, ranging from
recognizing individual symbols and linguistic units to synthesizing
and integrating information within a meaningful framework, thereby
engaging higher-order thinking skills (Kendeou etal., 2014; Zhang
and Zhang, 2022).
Comprehending a written text is a complex cognitive activity that
relies on several interconnected factors. It necessitates the activation
of prior knowledge, uency in reading, relevant past experiences, the
utilization of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, a strong grasp of
lexical and grammatical knowledge, the ability to organize
information, make judgments, and engage in reective evaluation
(Syatriana, 2011). Consequently, reading comprehension is recognized
as a challenging skill in internationally recognized tests such as the
International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and Test of
English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) (Pellegrino and Hilton, 2012;
Hung, 2015). Furthermore, several other variables can inuence
learners’ reading comprehension abilities. ese variables encompass
reading types, individuals’ attitudes toward reading, the methods
employed during reading activities, adaptability to dierent text
genres, and the strategies utilized by learners to comprehend the texts
eectively (Jeon and Yamashita, 2014; Zhang and Zhang, 2022). ese
factors interact and contribute to learners’ overall reading
comprehension performance (Jeon and Yamashita, 2014). Given the
complexity of reading comprehension and its signicance in academic
and language prociency assessments, it is imperative to further
explore various instructional procedures and their impact on learners’
comprehension abilities (Yapp etal., 2021). Also, understanding the
variables that aect reading comprehension can inform instructional
practices, curriculum design, and the development of eective
strategies to enhance learners’ reading skills.
Reading comprehension, a challenging process that contains
components, procedures, and aspects with the desire to discover great
ways of accelerating it, is an integrated process of generating meanings
from a reading section (Meniado, 2016). Besides, there appeared
several ways to improve EFL learners’ reading comprehension, for
instance, by incorporating online ipped classrooms, as supported in
the literature (Öztürk and Çakıroğlu, 2021; Samiei and Ebadi, 2021;
Fischer and Yang, 2022; Hasan etal., 2022; Mohammaddokht and
Fathi, 2022). According to Samiei and Ebadi (2021), WebQuest-based
ipped classroom signicantly enhances learners’ inferential reading
comprehension as revealed via the data analysis. In a similar study,
Hashemifardnia etal. (2018) examined how ipped classroom aects
junior high school students’ reading comprehension in EFL context.
ey stated that online ipped classrooms could substantially aect
reading comprehension. Although the signicance of ipped
classrooms in enhancing reading comprehension has received limited
exploration, the objective of this study is to contribute to the existing
literature by investigating the impact of online ipped classrooms on
the reading comprehension of EFL learners.
Self-regulated learning
In educational psychology, Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) stands
as a foundational construct, intrinsically linked with Zimmerman’s
theoretical framework (Zimmerman, 2000). Zimmerman posits that
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Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org
human regulatory skill, or the lack thereof, holds a pivotal role in
shaping our perception of personal agency, which, in turn, forms the
very core of our self-concept (Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman and
Schunk, 2001). e development of this regulatory capability,
encompassing its subcomponents and functional aspects, has
remained a central focus of social cognitive theory and research
(Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001).
Zimmerman’s comprehensive framework extends its purview to
elucidate common dysfunctions observed in self-regulatory
functioning, including phenomena such as biased self-monitoring,
self-blaming judgments, and defensive self-reactions (Zimmerman,
2000). In seeking to provide a holistic perspective on self-regulation,
Zimmerman’s framework addresses a multitude of facets. ese
include delving into the structural elements of self-regulatory systems,
discerning the inuences of social and physical environmental
contexts on self-regulation, investigating dysfunctions that may arise
within the realm of self-regulation, and exploring the developmental
trajectory of self-regulation (Zimmerman, 2000).
Within the realm of SRL, learners engage in a multifaceted set of
strategies that empower them to meticulously plan, closely monitor,
and critically evaluate their learning activities (Zimmerman and
Schunk, 2001). ese strategies, deeply ingrained in Zimmerman’s
model, serve as the scaolding upon which learners construct their
self-regulated learning processes. ey assume control over their
learning endeavors, establish meaningful goals, evaluate their
progress, and adapt their strategies judiciously to optimize learning
outcomes (Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001).
ese SRL strategies seamlessly align with three distinct phases:
Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluating. In the Planning phase, learners
undertake activities that lay the groundwork for eective reading
comprehension. is phase encompasses actions such as previewing
reading tasks, setting clear learning objectives, and formulating goals
before immersing themselves in the reading materials.
e Monitoring phase, on the other hand, hinges on learners’
adeptness at overseeing their reading progress and performance.
Strategies like self-checking comprehension, identifying challenging
sections, and making real-time adjustments during the reading
process epitomize this phase.
Lastly, the Evaluating phase revolves around the critical assessment
of the ecacy of one’s learning strategies and the attainment of
learning objectives. In this phase, learners engage in reection on their
reading experiences, conduct a thorough analysis of the success of
their approaches, and contemplate adjustments for future
learning endeavors.
In the specic context of English reading comprehension, the
application of SRL strategies assumes paramount importance.
Learners can substantially enhance their reading skills by proactively
employing SRL strategies that seamlessly align with Zimmerman’s
model. ese strategies, which traverse the planning, monitoring, and
evaluating phases, enable learners to not only navigate the intricate
landscape of reading comprehension eectively but also become
architects of their own learning experiences. In the planning phase,
learners prelude their reading journeys by engaging in activities such
as previewing reading tasks and crystallizing their learning objectives.
Subsequently, the monitoring phase calls for ongoing self-assessment
and vigilant tracking of progress during the reading process. Finally,
the evaluating phase encourages learners to engage in a
comprehensive assessment of their comprehension, scrutinize the
ecacy of their chosen strategies, and cra a roadmap for continued
learning success.
Self-regulated learning strategies hold signicant importance in
empowering students to assume agency over their learning process
and actively participate in their educational journey (Zimmerman,
2002). Self-regulation encompasses the development of a practical
understanding of one’s own abilities, enabling students to make
informed decisions and take appropriate actions to enhance their
learning experiences (Zimmerman, 2000; Pajares, 2009). Students
who possess a high level of self-regulation acquire the capacity to exert
control over their learning processes, actively constructing meaning,
establishing goals, making deliberate choices regarding the strategies
they employ, and assuming leadership in directing their own learning
(Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001; Pintrich, 2004). Moreover, they
eectively integrate contextual and personal factors into their learning
experiences, recognizing the interplay between these elements.
e utilization of self-regulated learning strategies results in
increased engagement and proactive learning among students (Nilson,
2023). ey develop the ability to monitor their progress, adapt their
learning strategies as needed, and demonstrate perseverance in the
face of challenges. is acquisition of self-regulation empowers
students to become autonomous learners, capable of adjusting their
approaches to dierent learning tasks and contexts, thereby enhancing
the eectiveness of their learning outcomes (eobald, 2021).
Furthermore, self-regulated learners display metacognitive awareness,
engaging in reection on their learning processes, evaluation of their
performance, and identication of areas for improvement (Andrade
and Evans, 2012). rough self-reection, self-evaluation, and self-
assessment, they continually rene their learning strategies,
optimizing their overall learning outcomes.
Blended teaching can make students autonomous in their
language learning process by planning to learn, having more pace for
selecting and sequencing the video- and audio-based content,
possessing ownership, making decisions, enhancing higher-order
learning skills, and observing learning to support self-regulated
learning strategies (Lai and Hwang, 2016; Tan etal., 2017; Van Laer
and Elen, 2017; Lee and Choi, 2019; Shih and Huang, 2020; Fathi
etal., 2023). Moreover, an online ipped classroom, as a blended
learning strategy, can oer authentic, meaningful, and personal
materials, oer learners control and provide sucient scaolding and
opportunities for interaction, reection, and cooperation (Van Laer
and Elen, 2017).
Within the context of online ipped classrooms, students are
called upon to employ a spectrum of self-regulated learning
strategies, encompassing cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioral
dimensions, to eectively navigate their pre-class tasks and
subsequently participate in in-class sessions (Geduld, 2016). e
cognitive facet entails strategies such as rehearsing, organizing,
transforming, and expanding knowledge, while metacognitive
strategies involve goal setting and performance monitoring.
Additionally, behavioral aspects encompass time and resource
management as well as note-taking practices (Karlen, 2016). ese
multifaceted strategies converge to form a cohesive skill set crucial
for successful EFL learning within the dynamic landscape of online
ipped classrooms.
Our focus on the interaction between ipped classrooms and
self-regulated learning not only acknowledges the evolving
demands placed upon learners but also sheds light on the symbiotic
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Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org
relationship between instructional methodology and cognitive
autonomy. While prior research has indeed identied predictive
links between self-regulated strategies and ipped classrooms (Van
Alten etal., 2020; Öztürk and Çakıroğlu, 2021), our study seeks to
extend this understanding by validating and strengthening these
insights within a distinct educational setting. To this end, this study
aims to examine how online ipped classrooms can inuence EFL
learners’ reading comprehension and self-regulated learning
strategies quantitatively and explore its role in students’
perception qualitatively.
The present study
Although previous studies have explored the effectiveness of
flipped instruction and online learning in improving language
skills, there remains a need for more empirical research,
particularly in the form of comparative studies that directly
compare different instructional methods. This current study aims
to address this research gap by investigating the effectiveness of
three teaching methods–Online Flipped Instruction (OFI),
Flipped Instruction (FI), and Traditional Instruction (TI)–in
enhancing L2 reading comprehension performance and self-
regulation among students.
rough the examination of online collaborative ipped
instruction in the OFI group, traditional ipped instruction in the FI
group, and conventional instruction in the TI group, this study will
assess the impact of each method on students’ L2 reading
comprehension performance and self-regulation. Via directly
comparing these three approaches, the study will generate empirical
evidence to identify the most eective teaching method for enhancing
students’ language learning outcomes. Against this backdrop, this
study aims to answer the following research questions:
1. What are the comparative eects of the OFI, FI, and TI
methods on L2 reading comprehension performance?
2. What are the comparative eects of the OFI, FI, and TI
methods on L2 reading self-regulation?
3. Are there signicant dierences in online learning behaviors
and objective performances between students in the OFI and
FI groups?
By answering these research questions, this study aims to
contribute to the existing literature by providing empirical evidence
on the comparative eectiveness of dierent instructional methods in
promoting L2 reading comprehension and self-regulated learning of
Chinese EFL learners. e rationale behind the emphasis on this
specic student cohort (i.e., EFL learners) is rooted in the recognition
that diverse factors, including cultural, linguistic, and educational
backgrounds, can shape the implementation and outcomes of
instructional methodologies. e intricacies of English language
acquisition for Chinese learners (Wu, 2001), coupled with the
demands of academic reading skills, render this population
particularly intriguing for investigation. By delving into the
experiences and responses of Chinese English learners within the
realm of online collaborative ipped classrooms, this study aims to
unearth insights that can inform tailored pedagogical strategies,
curriculum design, and instructional support.
Method
Participants
e participants in this research were 71 EFL students, aged
between 18 to 30 years old, who were enrolled in an English
language course at a large language institute in mainland China. e
majority of the participants were females (n = 45, 63.4%) and the
rest of the students were males (n = 26, 36.6%). e participants had
varying educational backgrounds, with most of them holding a high
school diploma or equivalent (n = 54, 76.1%) and the remaining
participants had a bachelor’s degree (n = 17, 23.9%). Participants’
prociency level was determined based on the standardized
placement test, Test of English for International Communication
(TOEIC; Woodford, 1982), which is widely employed to evaluate
the English prociency of non-native speakers. Participants with an
intermediate prociency level (score range between 550 and 780)
were included in the study. e participants were divided into three
classes who were randomly assigned to a traditional instruction
(TI) group (n = 24), and two experimental groups: Flipped
Instruction (FI) group (n = 22) and Online Flipped Instruction
(OFI) group (n = 25).
While addressing potential concerns regarding the sample size,
insights were drawn from the recommendations of American
Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (2010), which
suggest that an optimal class size of approximately 15 students is
advisable for facilitating collaborative learning activities eectively,
especially within student-centered educational contexts. However,
it’s worth noting that collaborative learning can still beimplemented
with larger class sizes, such as the 22 students in our study. To
accommodate the larger class size while adhering to the principles
of collaborative learning, we strategically designed the ipped
instruction and online ipped instruction approaches, ensuring
that they were conducive to group interactions and active
engagement. is approach aimed to maintain the quality and
eectiveness of collaborative learning, even with a larger number of
students, thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of the
research ndings.
Measures
Reading comprehension
e participants’ reading comprehension ability was measured
using the IELTS reading test (University of Cambridge ESOL
Examinations, 2011). e IELTS reading test consists of three sections,
each containing one long reading passage with increasing diculty,
followed by a set of multiple-choice questions. e IELTS Academic
Reading test is a standardized assessment that consists of 40 questions
and is administered within a strict time limit of 60 min. e test aims
to assess the participants’ ability to comprehend and analyze academic
English texts. e IELTS reading test has been extensively employed
in L2 research, and has demonstrated good reliability and validity in
measuring reading comprehension ability.
According to Weir and O’Sullivan (2017), the post-1989 evolution
of IELTS primarily involves the transformation of the initial ELTS into
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Frontiers in Psychology 07 frontiersin.org
a legitimate, psychometrically sound, high-stakes assessment with the
capacity for widespread global administration on a large scale.
Moreover, current data from the IELTS website (IELTS, 2021) provides
comprehensive statistics for the test forms administered in 2019.
Specically, for the Reading section, the reported reliability coecient
stands at a robust value of 0.92, within a condence interval of 0.90
to 0.93.
Self-regulated learning strategy use
questionnaire
e Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) questionnaire utilized in this
study was developed by Tse et al. (2022) and was based on
Zimmerman’s (2000) cyclical phases model. e questionnaire
comprised 13 statements that assessed the employment of SRL
strategies in English reading. e statements were formulated
according to three categories of SRL strategies: planning, monitoring,
and evaluating. Planning involved activities such as previewing
reading tasks and setting goals prior to reading, whereas monitoring
referred to checking and monitoring one’s reading progress and
performance. Evaluating concerned the assessment of learning
outcomes and the eectiveness of strategies. Participants rated all
items using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or almost
never) to 4 (every day or almost every day). e SRL strategy use
questionnaire exhibited robust internal consistency, attaining a
commendable coecient of reliability at r = 0.86 within the context of
this study.
Online quizzes
To thoroughly assess the participants’ engagement with the course
materials and their understanding of the content, a series of online
quizzes were administered on a weekly basis to both the OFI and FI
groups. ese quizzes were thoughtfully designed to serve multiple
purposes: to aid participants in their preparation for the subsequent
in-class activities, to reinforce their comprehension of the assigned
video lessons, and to evaluate their grasp of the core concepts relevant
to the course.
Each weekly quiz comprised a carefully curated set of questions,
ranging from 15 to 25in number. ese questions encompassed a
variety of formats, including multiple-choice and short-answer
questions, and were meticulously aligned with the main topics covered
in the video lessons. Importantly, the questions were intentionally
tailored to bridge the gap between the video content and the
overarching theme of English reading comprehension. By
incorporating elements of reading analysis, interpretation, and
application, these quizzes aimed to foster a deeper understanding of
the materials presented in the videos and to promote critical thinking
in the context of L2 reading.
roughout the 12-week course duration, a total of 10 quizzes
were administered. e quizzes were strategically spaced to
correspond with the course’s progression and to ensure that
participants had the opportunity to revisit and consolidate their
knowledge on a regular basis. e mean score obtained by each
participant across these quizzes was computed as an additional metric
of achievement. is mean score served to provide insights into the
participants’ consistent performance and their evolving
comprehension of the course materials. It is noteworthy that the quiz
scores contributed signicantly to the participants’ nal grades,
reecting their competence in grasping the course content. Specically,
the nal grades were calculated based on a comprehensive evaluation
framework, which included various components. ese components
encompassed the overall participation score (50%), comprising class
attendance (20%), quiz scores (20%), and assignments (10%).
Additionally, the nal grades considered the midterm test score (20%)
and the nal test (post-test) score (30%). is multifaceted approach
to assessment aimed to holistically gage the participants’ progress,
engagement, and achievement throughout the course.
Online learning behavior
Following Fischer and Yang (2022), the present study examined
three distinct online learning behaviors, encompassing regular online
log-on time, group video-watching time, and total online log-on
times. Each of these dimensions warrants attention and consideration
within the context of our research. Firstly, regular online log-on time
signies the temporal commitment learners invest in engaging with
the weekly assigned video lessons online. It reects the extent to
which students actively participate in the preparatory phase of ipped
classrooms, where they access and assimilate instructional content
independently before class. is dimension directly intersects with
the ipped classroom model, as it measures the conscientiousness
with which students approach their pre-class learning activities.
Secondly, group video-watching time stands as a critical component
of online learning behavior, capturing the duration during which
participants in the experimental groups jointly engage in watching
video lessons within small online groups. is dimension
encapsulates the collaborative aspect of the ipped classroom
approach, emphasizing the value of peer interaction and shared
learning experiences. It is an essential component that furthers our
understanding of how students engage with instructional materials
and with each other, highlighting the interpersonal dimension of
online learning. Lastly, total online log-on times amalgamate
individual regular online log-on times with the time spent in small
group video-watching sessions. is cumulative measure oers a
comprehensive perspective on students’ overall engagement with
online learning materials and activities. It underscores the holistic
nature of online learning behavior, recognizing that eective learning
in the digital realm encompasses both independent and
collaborative dimensions.
Importantly, these dimensions of online learning behavior closely
align with the tenets of self-regulated learning. SRL involves learners
taking charge of their learning processes, which includes planning,
monitoring, and evaluating their learning activities. e temporal
commitment demonstrated through regular online log-on times
resonates with the planning phase of SRL, where learners proactively
engage with course materials and set the stage for eective learning.
Group video-watching time correlates with the monitoring phase, as
it reects learners’ active involvement in tracking their progress
through collaborative engagement. Lastly, the cumulative measure of
total online log-on times speaks to the evaluation phase, wherein
learners assess their learning strategies and the eectiveness of their
collaborative endeavors.
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Group video-watching time, on the other hand, exclusively
captured the amount of time that the experimental group participants
spent watching the video lessons in small online groups. Lastly, total
online log-on times represented the cumulative measure,
incorporating the individual regular online log-on times and the small
group video-watching times of the participants.
To examine participants’ online learning behaviors, weekly video
lessons and accompanying quizzes were uploaded onto the LMS used
in this study. Both groups (i.e., FI and OFI) participants were
instructed to watch the assigned videos on the LMS and complete the
quizzes before attending class. e LMS automatically tracked each
student’s log-on time for video viewing on a weekly basis. ese
log-on times were then aggregated to calculate the overall regular
online log-on time for each participant throughout the course.
Additionally, the students’ online activities, including video-watching
and collaborative quiz sessions, were recorded. e duration of each
online group session was calculated, resulting in the group video-
watching time. is analysis provided insights into the students’
collective time spent watching the assigned videos and collaborating
within the virtual environment, contributing to a comprehensive
understanding of their online learning behaviors. To explore
participants’ online learning behaviors, weekly video lessons and
accompanying quizzes were uploaded to the LMS employed in this
study. Both the Flipped Instruction and Online OFI groups were
directed to view the designated videos on the LMS and take the
quizzes prior to coming to class. e LMS automatically recorded
students’ log-on times for video viewing on a weekly basis, which were
then combined to determine their overall online log-on time
throughout the course.
Furthermore, students’ online engagement, encompassing video-
watching and collaborative quiz sessions, was meticulously logged.
e duration of each group session was calculated, resulting in the
compilation of group video-watching time. is analysis furnished
valuable insights into the collective time students invested in viewing
the assigned videos and engaging in collaboration within the virtual
learning environment. Consequently, it contributed to a
comprehensive comprehension of their online learning behaviors.
Procedure
All three groups in the study were instructed by the same teacher,
who had professional training in teaching English, specically in
academic reading skills. e course materials utilized in the study
were focused on academic English reading skills, with particular
emphasis on the learners’ prociency in the IELTS academic reading
test. e course lasted for 12 weeks, during which time all three
groups received 180 min of instruction per week, distributed over two
90-min sessions. Pre-tests and post-tests were administered during
the rst and last week of the course to measure the progress of
the learners.
In the traditional instruction (TI) group, the instructor employed
the traditional ‘sage on the stage’ method to deliver the course
materials and facilitate group exercises and activities. e classroom
sessions primarily involved teacher-led instruction, group exercises,
and activities. Pre- and post-test assessments were conducted by the
teacher. In the ipped instruction (FI) and online ipped instruction
(OFI) groups, the teacher played a more dynamic role, both inside and
outside of the classroom. In the classroom, the instructor designed the
curriculum, coordinated and supervised group activities, provided
feedback and answered questions, as well as conducted pre- and post-
test assessments. Beyond the connes of the traditional classroom
setting, the educator meticulously curated and presented pre-designed
video lessons, which were thoughtfully craed to integrate reading
comprehension exercises, textual analysis, and targeted reading
strategies directly into the video content. Additionally, the teacher
assumed responsibility for conceptualizing, producing, recording, and
rening these tailored video lessons to ensure a comprehensive and
eective approach to teaching reading skills and fostering self-
regulated learning. Furthermore, the instructor eciently oversaw the
organization and administration of course materials within the
educational institution’s designated learning management system. To
facilitate online interactions, the teacher harnessed the capabilities of
the Zoom Webinar video meeting web application. Moreover, during
the OFI group sessions conducted virtually, the instructor delivered
periodic feedback to foster an optimal learning environment.
In the weekly in-class sessions, the instructor began by providing
brief announcements and instructions, as well as answering students’
questions. en, for the remaining class time, the instructor divided
students into groups and engaged them in various exercises and tasks
to practice the weekly lesson content, which focused on reading skills
and strategies. All learners were exposed to the identical in-class
instruction. As part of their extracurricular learning, the FI students
engaged in independent viewing of the designated course video
lessons and subsequently undertook brief quizzes aligned with each
instructional video.
In contrast to the other groups, the OFI students were purposefully
grouped into small cohorts, consisting of no more than four
individuals. ese smaller groups fostered a conducive environment
for collaborative learning as they collectively watched the assigned
weekly video lesson online. roughout these sessions, the OFI
students actively engaged in collaborative discussions, exchanging
ideas, and jointly completing the video quizzes, thereby reinforcing
their understanding of the material as a unied entity. To facilitate
seamless communication and interaction during their online video
sessions, the small OFI groups eectively utilized Google Hangouts,
leveraging its features for synchronous video conferencing and real-
time collaboration. Consequently, their sessions were recorded and
securely submitted to the instructor for meticulous review and
insightful feedback.
It is noteworthy that the OFI students were explicitly informed
of the signicance of their weekly online video sessions. ey were
apprised that these sessions would bethoughtfully reviewed and
deliberated upon during the subsequent in-person sessions held on
a weekly basis. is ensured that the insights, discussions, and
collaborative eorts from the online environment seamlessly
integrated with the face-to-face instructional setting, fostering
continuity and cohesion in the students’ learning experiences. In
contrast, the TI students followed a dierent approach during their
weekly lessons. ese sessions encompassed a combination of
in-class instruction focused on delivering the course content and a
variety of engaging activities designed to enhance student
participation and comprehension. Commencing each session, the
instructor dedicated the initial half to comprehensive coverage of
the lesson materials, providing necessary explanations and
clarications to support student learning. Subsequently, the latter
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portion of the session was dedicated to a range of interactive group
activities and tasks, specically designed to align with the lesson
topics and skills covered in the assigned readings. is format
emulated the structure and format adopted in the weekly in-class
sessions of the FI and OFI groups, ensuring consistency and
alignment across the instructional approaches employed throughout
the study (Table1).
Prior to the commencement of the study, all participants,
regardless of their assigned experimental group, underwent pre-testing
to establish baseline measurements of their reading comprehension
abilities and SRL strategies. e pre-tests were conducted during the
initial week of the course. Subsequently, upon completion of the
12-week course, post-tests were administered during the nal week to
assess the participants’ progress. e SRL strategy use questionnaire
was administered at the beginning and end of the course to gage any
changes in self-regulated learning behaviors and strategies. ese
assessments were conducted in a controlled classroom environment
to ensure consistent testing conditions for all participants. Participants
were instructed to respond to the pre- and post-tests and the SRL
surveys with their utmost attention and sincerity, as their responses
played a crucial role in evaluating the eectiveness of the instructional
approaches employed in this study. e test and survey data were
collected and analyzed to provide valuable insights into the impact of
the dierent instructional methods on reading comprehension and
self-regulated learning outcomes.
Data analysis
To analyze the data collected for this study, the researchers used
statistical soware SPSS. e rst research question was explored
using a paired-sample t-test to compare the mean scores of the pre-
and post-tests for the three groups (OFI, FI, and TI). Subsequently, to
examine potential distinctions in the post-test scores among the
groups, ANOVA was employed, supplemented by Fisher’s LSD
post-hoc analysis. Regarding the third research question, an
independent t-test was conducted to explore possible disparities in the
online learning behaviors and objective performances, specically the
average online quiz scores and nal course grades, between the two
experimental ipped groups (OFI and FI).
Results
e rst research question aimed to investigate which teaching
method–Traditional Instruction (TI), Flipped Instruction (FI), or
Online Flipped Instruction (OFI)–yielded the most signicant results
in terms of the students’ L2 reading comprehension performance. To
address this question, a paired-sample t-test was conducted to
compare the pre-test and post-test scores of the students in each
group. As seen in Table2, the results revealed that all three groups
showed signicant improvement in their reading comprehension
performance from pre-test to post-test. e mean scores of the
students in the FI and OFI groups increased from pre-test to post-test,
while the mean score of the TI group slightly decreased.
e paired-sample t-test results showed that all three groups
showed signicant improvement in their reading comprehension
performance from pre-test to post-test (TI: t = 3.79, p = 0.005; FI:
t = 5.09, p = 0.000; OFI: t = 6.74, p = 0.000). e OFI group showed the
highest improvement, followed by the FI group, and then the TI group.
To further examine which teaching method had the most
signicant eect on the students’ reading comprehension performance,
a one-way ANOVA was conducted. Table3 presents the results of the
ANOVA for reading comprehension. e results indicated a signicant
dierence between the groups in terms of their reading comprehension
performance [F(2, 68) = 3.61, p = 0.034].
Post hoc tests using the LSD method were conducted to determine
which groups were signicantly dierent from each other. Table 4
presents the results of the post hoc tests. e results showed that there was
a signicant dierence in reading comprehension performance between
the OFI and TI groups (p = 0.008), indicating that the OFI group had a
signicantly higher mean score than the TI group. Additionally, the
results revealed a signicant dierence between the FI and OFI groups
TABLE1 Main features of the reading intervention across experimental
groups.
Instructional
features
Traditional
Instruction
(TI)
Flipped
Instruction
(FI)
Online
Flipped
Instruction
(OFI)
Teacher’s
Role
‘Sage on
the stage’
method
Dynamic
role
Dynamic
role
Curriculum design Yes Yes Yes
Group activities Yes Yes Yes
Feedback and Q&A Yes Yes Yes
Pre- and post-tests Yes Yes Yes
Video lessons No Yes Yes
Online quizzes No Yes Yes
Specialized video
lessons
No Some Yes
Learning
management
system
No No Yes
Zoom webinar No No Yes
Collaborative
online sessions
No No Yes
Google hangouts
integration
No No Yes
Recorded sessions
review
No No Yes
TABLE2 Results of the paired-sample t-test for reading comprehension
Pre-test Post-test t p
M SD M SD
TI 5.12 0.66 5.66 0.56
3.79**
0.005
FI 5.18 0.72 6.08 0.72
5.09***
0.000
OFI 4.99 0.83 6.41 0.69
6.74***
0.000
**p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. TI, Traditional instruction; FI, Flipped Instruction; OFI, Online
ipped instruction.
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Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org
(p = 0.031), indicating that the OFI group had a slightly higher mean
score than the FI group, although this dierence was not as big as the
dierence between the OFI and TI groups. Finally, there was also a
signicant dierence between the TI and FI groups (p = 0.023).
e second research question examined the dierences in self-
regulated learning strategies among students in the three teaching
methods. Based on the results of the paired-sample t-test for self-
regulated learning (Table5), the two ipped teaching methods showed
an increase in self-regulated learning from pre-test to post-test.
However, the largest increase was observed in the OFI group (M = 3.15,
SD = 0.68 to M = 4.35, SD = 0.67) with a signicant t-value of 7.32
(p < 0.001). e FI group also showed a signicant increase in self-
regulated learning (M = 3.21, SD = 0.89 to M = 3.93, SD = 0.83) with a
t-value of 4.30 (p < 0.01). e TI group, on the other hand, showed a
non-signicant increase in self-regulated learning (M = 3.28, SD = 0.71
to M = 3.41, SD = 0.75) with a t-value of 1.58 (p = 0.123).
Also, the results of the ANOVA for self-regulated learning in L2
reading (Table 6) indicate that there was a signicant dierence
between the teaching methods in terms of their eect on self-regulated
learning (F = 5.67, p = 0.012). e post hoc LSD analysis (Table 7)
revealed that the OFI group had a signicantly higher mean self-
regulated learning score (M = 4.35, SE = 0.19) than both the FI group
(M = 3.93, SE = 0.19) and the TI group (M = 3.41, SE = 0.19) with mean
dierences of 0.42 (p = 0.035) and 0.94 (p < 0.001), respectively.
Additionally, the FI group had a signicantly higher mean self-
regulated learning score than the TI group with a mean dierence of
0.52 (p = 0.015). Overall, it was found that both the FI and OFI
teaching methods resulted in a greater increase in self-regulated
learning in L2 reading compared to traditional instruction.
Furthermore, the OFI method yielded the highest increase in self-
regulated learning, suggesting that online ipped classrooms can bea
benecial approach for enhancing students’ self-regulation in
L2 reading.
e third research question addressed in this study was whether
there were signicant dierences in the online learning behaviors and
objective performances of OFI and FI students. Based on the results
of the independent-samples t-tests (see Table8) provided, there were
signicant dierences in the total online log-on time, online quiz
score, and nal score between the FI and OFI students. e OFI
students had a signicantly higher total online log-on time (M = 9.23 h,
SD = 3.27) than the FI students (M = 2.96 h, SD = 0.79), t = −5.234,
p < 0.001. e OFI students also had a signicantly higher online quiz
score (M = 89, SD = 16.54) than the FI students (M = 64, SD = 14.23),
t = −4.751, p < 0.001, and a signicantly higher nal score (M = 88,
SD = 14.97) compared to the FI students (M = 69, SD = 11.29),
t = −3.272, p = 0.008. ese results suggest that the OFI students had
better objective performances than the FI students in terms of online
quiz and nal score, and also spent more time online overall.
Discussions
e arrival of student-centered language education shed some
light on the signicance of implementing blended learning in EFL
classes. One such developmental move was an online ipped
classroom that could foster collaboration and cooperation, scaolding
(Topping and Ehly, 1998) and problem-solving (Barrows, 1996), and
exibility (Michael, 2006). us, the present study aimed to compare
the eectiveness of traditional instruction (TI), ipped instruction
(FI), and online ipped instruction (OFI) on the reading
comprehension and self-regulated learning strategies of EFL learners.
e ndings of the study revealed that both FI and OFI instructional
methods were more eective in improving students’ reading
comprehension scores compared to traditional instruction.
Furthermore, the OFI method showed signicant improvements in
students’ SRL strategy use compared to the other two groups. ese
results suggest that incorporating ipped and online ipped
instruction into EFL reading instruction may enhance students’
learning outcomes.
One of the noteworthy ndings of this study was the positive
impact of online ipped classrooms on the reading comprehension
abilities of EFL learners. e success of this approach can beattributed
to a range of eective strategies employed. ese encompass assigning
videos and reading tasks for completion outside the traditional
TABLE3 Results of ANOVA for reading comprehension.
SS df MS F P
Between
groups
3.02 2 1.51
3.61*
0.034
Within
groups
21.32 68 0.43
Tot al 24.35 70
*p < 0.05.
TABLE4 Results of post hoc LSD.
95% CI
Mean
dierence
SE p Lower Upper
(I) (J) (I–J)
TI FI 0.42 0.191 0.023 0.042 0.798
OFI TI 0.75 0.189 0.008 0.378 1.122
OFI FI 0.33 0.194 0.031
−0.048
0.708
TABLE5 Results of the paired-sample t-test self-regulated learning.
Pre-test Post-test t p
M SD M SD
TI 3.28 0.71 3.41 0.75 1.58 0.123
FI 3.21 0.89 3.93 0.83
4.30**
0.006
OFI 3.15 0.68 4.35 0.67
7.32***
0.000
**p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
TABLE6 Results of ANOVA self-regulated learning in L2 reading.
SS df MS F P
Between
groups
4.22 2 2.11
5.67*
0.012
Within
groups
36.75 68 0.64
Tot al 40.97 70
*p < 0.05.
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Frontiers in Psychology 11 frontiersin.org
classroom, facilitating collaborative reading tasks through online
communication platforms, and fostering reection and self-evaluation
of reading comprehension skills. ese strategies have been supported
by prior research, demonstrating increased motivation, engagement,
and productivity within the classroom (Strelan etal., 2020; Vitta and
Al-Hoorie, 2020).
ese results can beattributed to a combination of well-founded
strategies that EFL learners can eectively employ to enhance their
reading performance in the context of ipped classrooms. Firstly, the
practice of assigning videos and reading tasks for completion outside
of the traditional classroom plays a pivotal role. is approach
encourages learners to take ownership of their learning process,
fostering independence and self-directed study habits. By engaging
with course materials independently, students have the opportunity to
delve deeper into the content, preparing them for more meaningful
in-class discussions and activities. Secondly, the utilization of
collaborative reading tasks facilitated through online communication
platforms enhances the learning experience. It promotes peer
interaction and shared exploration of texts, enabling learners to benet
from diverse perspectives and insights. is collaborative dimension
not only enriches their understanding of the reading materials but also
cultivates crucial communication skills in an online context, aligning
with the demands of the digital age. Furthermore, the practice of
facilitating peer feedback exchange during reading activities fosters a
constructive learning environment. Learners actively contribute to
each other’s growth by providing valuable insights and critiques. is
not only bolsters their comprehension but also encourages a culture of
continuous improvement and mutual support. In addition, individual
and collective reection on reading practices is integral to the success
of ipped classrooms. Encouraging learners to assess their own reading
comprehension skills and engage in group discussions about their
strategies encourages metacognitive awareness. It empowers them to
adapt and rene their approaches to reading, leading to more eective
comprehension. Moreover, the promotion of self-evaluation of reading
comprehension skills empowers learners to take charge of their
progress. By regularly assessing their own understanding and
identifying areas for improvement, students become more self-aware
and accountable for their learning outcomes.
Finally, providing opportunities for communicative activities
beyond the connes of the classroom solidies the positive outcomes
of online ipped classrooms. ese activities allow students to apply
their reading comprehension skills in real-world contexts, reinforcing
their practical utility. As a result, they become more motivated,
engaged, reective, and productive within the classroom environment.
ese ndings align with the research of Strelan etal. (2020) and Vitta
and Al-Hoorie (2020), underscoring the eectiveness of these
instructional approaches. By implementing these strategies, educators
can harness the power of online ipped classrooms to elevate student
motivation, engagement, reection, and productivity. Ultimately,
learners actively participate in critical discussions, engage in the
negotiation of meaning, and emerge with a deeper understanding of
the reading materials.
e eectiveness of these strategies is substantiated by prior
research (Guo, 2019; Fulgueras and Bautista, 2020; Mohammad
Hosseini etal., 2020; Shih and Huang, 2020; Samiei and Ebadi, 2021;
Yulian, 2021; Fischer and Yang, 2022) which has consistently
demonstrated their ecacy in improving EFL learners’ skills in
general and L2 reading in particular. Also, the results of the study are
consistent with previous research that has found that ipped
instruction can lead to increased student engagement and achievement
(Strayer, 2012; Bergmann and Sams, 2014; Stöhr etal., 2020; Turan
and Akdag-Cimen, 2020). Flipped instruction allows students to take
control of their learning by providing them with access to course
materials outside of class and enabling them to review and study at
their own pace. e results of the current study also support the
ndings of previous research that has found that online learning can
bean eective method of instruction (Bernard etal., 2009).
It was also revealed that online ipped instruction had a more
signicant eect on L2 reading comprehension of the EFL participants
than ipped instruction. is dierence can beattributed to several
key factors. Firstly, the essence of the ipped classroom model, as
conceptualized by Bergmann and Sams (2014) and Su Ping etal.
(2020), revolves around providing students with pre-class access to
instructional materials. is empowers them to progress through the
content at their own pace, ensuring a foundational understanding
before engaging in more dynamic and participatory in-class activities.
is advantage is further magnied when executed through online
platforms (Stöhr etal., 2020), where students can eciently allocate
their in-class time for focused practice and interactive learning
experiences (Hew etal., 2020).
Additionally, a body of prior research underscores the potency of
technology-based instruction, particularly the use of online materials
and multimedia resources, in augmenting language learning outcomes
(González-Lloret, 2019; Jain etal., 2023). e dynamic and interactive
nature of technology-supported learning environments can
substantially contribute to language skill development (Yang etal.,
2021). By providing our students with accessible online materials
tailored to their individual learning pace, the online ipped instruction
approach likely fostered a deeper engagement with the content and a
more eective honing of their reading skills.
TABLE7 Results of post hoc LSD.
95% CI
Mean
dierence
SE p Lower Upper
(I) (J) (I–J)
TI FI 0.52 0.192 0.015 0.097 0.943
OFI TI 0.94 0.191 0.000 0.516 1.364
OFI FI 0.42 0.196 0.035 0.026 0.814
TABLE8 Results of the independent-samples t-test.
Group M SD t p
Tot al
online
log-on
time
(hours)
FI 2.96 0.79
– 5.234***
0.000
OFI 9.23 3.27
Online
quiz score
FI 64 14.23
– 4.751***
0.000
OFI 89 16.54
Final score FI 69 11.29
– 3.272**
0.008
OFI 88 14.97
**p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
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Frontiers in Psychology 12 frontiersin.org
Furthermore, the integration of multimedia resources within our
online materials played a pivotal role in sustaining student engagement
and motivation (Shin etal., 2020). is multimedia-rich environment
not only catered to diverse learning preferences but also injected an
element of interactivity, capturing and sustaining student interest
throughout the learning process.
Previous research also supported that reading comprehension
could beenhanced by engaging learners in an online ipped classroom
model (Karimi and Hamzavi, 2017; Hashemifardnia et al., 2018;
Samiei and Ebadi, 2021). As reading comprehension involves
associating the background knowledge with the reading text, EFL
learners who are connected to the internet and can search around any
topic become able to create the background knowledge before starting
their reading due to their time exibility outside of class. Participating
in online ipped classrooms empowers EFL learners, providing them
with the agency and autonomy to make informed decisions and take
purposeful actions in their reading practices (Fulgueras and Bautista,
2020). is pedagogical approach fosters a sense of ownership and
responsibility in learners, motivating them to adapt and rene their
reading strategies, and explore novel approaches and techniques
(Fischer and Yang, 2022). Furthermore, online ipped classrooms
cultivate a positive attitude toward the inherent challenges of
comprehending texts, encouraging learners to perceive these
challenges as opportunities for personal growth and deeper
understanding (Samiei and Ebadi, 2021).
Moreover, EFL learners derive signicant benets from the
opportunity to enhance their vocabulary and grammatical knowledge
through engaging with various activities before, during, and aer
reading texts (Turan and Akdag-Cimen, 2020). ey actively employ
a range of strategies to strengthen their language prociency, including
the use of dictionaries to clarify unfamiliar words, the application of
contextual cues to predict and infer meaning, engaging in peer
discussions to seek clarication and deepen understanding, and
employing eective organizational strategies such as rehearsal,
rereading, and summarization. By skillfully utilizing these cognitive
and metacognitive strategies, learners cultivate an enriched reading
process that facilitates comprehensive comprehension and fosters
critical thinking abilities (Karimi and Hamzavi, 2017; Fulgueras and
Bautista, 2020; Samiei and Ebadi, 2021; Yulian, 2021; Li etal., 2022;
Liu etal., 2022). Furthermore, EFL learners can reach opportunities
to discuss and negotiate the reading points, ideas, diculties, and
strategies and engage in problem-solving and information-exchange
communicative activities while they are in the classes (Kim etal., 2017;
Zarrinabadi and Ebrahimi, 2018). Additionally, Gok et al. (2021)
discovered that EFL learners’ classroom anxiety and foreign language
reading anxiety could bedeceased during the ipped classroom, and
they could bemore motivated to comprehend reading text (Jiang etal.,
2021). In the same vein, Hashemifardnia etal. (2018) studied how
ipped classrooms predicted junior high school students’ reading
comprehension. ey identied that online ipped classrooms could
considerably aect reading comprehension.
Another nding of this study was the signicance of online ipped
classrooms on self-regulated learning strategies of learners since
learners can gradually learn how to acquire, organize, reect, and
appraise their own learning practices (Lai and Hwang, 2016). EFL
learners need to plan their tasks and exercises outside of class, set aims
and objectives and develop their understanding of their styles of
learning (metacognitive strategy), recognize and boost their eorts,
consolidate content and input (behavioral and motivational), observe
and evaluate their learning (self-evaluation) (Paris and Paris, 2001;
Artino and Stephens, 2009; Zimmerman and Moylan, 2009; Kistner
etal., 2010; Kramarski etal., 2013; Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2014).
Also, as learners need to beactively involved in ipped classrooms to
make decisions, become autonomous, take ownership, know their
competence, regulate their learning process, perceive the intended
meanings, and link the personal and environmental factors, they can
reach more incredible self-regulated learning strategies (Zimmerman,
2000; Pintrich, 2004; Pajares, 2009). us, online ipped classrooms
can benet EFL learners’ reading comprehension and self-regulated
strategies. More specically, online collaborative learning can enhance
SRL strategies by providing students with opportunities to work
together, reect on their learning, and engage in metacognitive
processes (Zimmerman, 2000; Dabbagh and Kitsantas, 2012; Kim
etal., 2017; Lei etal., 2022). online instruction provides learners with
greater autonomy and control over their learning, allowing them to
engage in self-regulated learning activities such as setting goals,
monitoring progress, and adapting strategies as needed (Dabbagh and
Kitsantas, 2012). In contrast, traditional classroom-based instruction
can limit learner autonomy and control, as learners may besubject to
the pace and structure of the lesson set by the teacher.
Another nding of this study was the signicance of online
ipped classrooms on self-regulated learning strategies of EFL
learners. is nding can beattributed to several key factors, each
underpinned by sound pedagogical principles. To begin with, the
framework of online ipped classrooms inherently promotes the
gradual development of SRL skills among learners (Lai and Hwang,
2016). is gradual evolution is facilitated as learners are encouraged
to acquire, organize, reect upon, and appraise their own learning
practices over time. In the context of EFL learning, this process
necessitates students to meticulously plan their tasks and exercises
outside the traditional class setting, establish clear aims and
objectives, and cultivate a nuanced understanding of their unique
learning styles–a core facet of metacognitive strategy (Paris and Paris,
2001; Artino and Stephens, 2009; Zimmerman and Moylan, 2009;
Kistner etal., 2010; Kramarski etal., 2013; Panadero and Alonso-
Tapia, 2014).
Moreover, active participation in online ipped classrooms
empowers learners to make informed decisions, fostering autonomy,
ownership of their learning journey, and an acute awareness of their
competence–all central tenets of SRL (Zimmerman, 2000; Pintrich,
2004; Pajares, 2009). Within this dynamic educational context,
students are encouraged to regulate their learning processes, decipher
intended meanings, and establish connections between personal and
environmental factors, thereby further enriching their repertoire of
SRL strategies. e advantages of online collaborative learning, a key
component of our online ipped classrooms, further bolster the
enhancement of SRL strategies. Collaborative learning environments
provide students with invaluable opportunities to work together,
engage in reective practices, and participate in metacognitive
processes (Zimmerman, 2000; Dabbagh and Kitsantas, 2012; Kim
etal., 2017; Lei etal., 2022). rough collaborative endeavors, students
gain insights from their peers, engage in discussions that require them
to reect on their learning, and employ metacognitive strategies to
evaluate their comprehension and learning progress.
Additionally, online instruction, in general, aords learners greater
autonomy and control over their learning experiences. is increased
agency empowers students to engage in various SRL activities, including
setting meaningful goals, monitoring their progress, and adapting
Wang 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255389
Frontiers in Psychology 13 frontiersin.org
strategies as needed (Dabbagh and Kitsantas, 2012). In contrast,
traditional classroom-based instruction may inadvertently curtail learner
autonomy and control, as students oen nd themselves subject to the
predetermined pace and structure of lessons set by the teacher.
Additionally, the ipped instruction approach can provide
learners with opportunities to engage in self-regulated learning
activities such as previewing, reviewing, and reecting on materials
before and aer class (Bergmann and Sams, 2014). However, in a
traditional ipped instruction approach, learners may belimited to
engaging in these activities outside the classroom, which may not
beconducive to developing self-regulated learning skills. In contrast,
online ipped instruction can provide learners with ongoing access to
materials, resources, and feedback, allowing them to engage in self-
regulated learning activities both inside and outside the classroom
(Galway etal., 2014; Jia etal., 2023).
Finally, the ndings revealed that the OFI students demonstrated
superior online learning behaviors and objective performances than
the FI students. One key dierence was the amount of time the
students spent engaging with the online course materials. ese
dierences can beattributed to several key factors, each contributing
to the enhanced performance of the OFI students. First and foremost,
the notable disparity in the amount of time dedicated to engaging with
online course materials between the OFI and FI groups is a pivotal
nding. OFI students invested signicantly more time in their learning
endeavors compared to the FI students. is disparity suggests that
the inclusion of the online component within the OFI group acted as
a motivating factor, encouraging students to spend more time
interacting with course materials. e online collaborative ipped
classroom approach inherently promotes active learning, fostering a
sense of responsibility and autonomy among students (Burke and
Fedorek, 2017; Tang etal., 2023). is encourages learners to delve
deeper into the subject matter and allocate more time to their studies.
Moreover, the higher scores achieved by the OFI students on
online quizzes provide additional insights. is outcome underscores
the eectiveness of the online collaborative ipped classroom
approach in the OFI group, as it enabled students to grasp the subject
matter more profoundly. e combination of pre-learning through
online resources and the collaborative online component in the OFI
group likely facilitated a more comprehensive understanding of the
material (Ng etal., 2022). is approach allowed students to review
content at their own pace, seek clarications as needed, and actively
engage in collaborative activities with their peers–factors that
collectively contributed to improved quiz performance. Furthermore,
the superior overall nal scores attained by the OFI students compared
to the FI students signify not only their prociency in online quizzes
but also their enhanced performance on the nal assessment. is
result suggests that the benets observed in the online component of
the OFI approach transcended the realm of quizzes and extended to
broader assessments. e amalgamation of ipped instruction and the
collaborative online component likely played a synergistic role in
fostering improved learning outcomes.
Conclusion and implications
is study investigated the eectiveness of an online collaborative
ipped classroom approach in improving English reading skills and
self-regulated learning among Chinese EFL learners. e results
demonstrated that both the FI and OFI groups outperformed the
traditional group in terms of reading comprehension and self-regulated
learning. Moreover, the OFI students exhibited superior online
learning behaviors and objective performances compared to the FI
students, spending more time engaging with the course materials and
achieving higher scores on online quizzes and nal assessments. ese
ndings highlight the potential benets of integrating ipped
instruction and online collaboration in L2 instruction.
e ndings of this study have several implications for educators
and researchers in the eld of language instruction. Firstly, the
incorporation of an online collaborative ipped classroom approach
has the potential to enhance students’ engagement, learning
outcomes, and overall performance in English reading skills.
Educators are encouraged to consider adopting similar instructional
methods that promote active learning, self-regulated strategies, and
collaborative learning opportunities. Secondly, the study highlights
the eectiveness of combining online resources with ipped
instruction to create a blended learning environment. Integrating
online components allows learners to access course materials exibly,
review content at their own pace, and engage in collaborative
activities, thereby enhancing their learning experience.
Moreover, the online collaborative ipped classroom model
promoted self-regulated learning behaviors, such as time management,
goal-setting, and progress monitoring. Educators should provide explicit
instruction and support in developing self-regulated learning skills to
empower learners to take ownership of their learning process.
Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of leveraging
technology for language instruction. Online platforms, interactive tools,
and multimedia resources facilitate learner engagement, provide
opportunities for authentic practice, and enable eective monitoring of
students’ progress. In terms of future research, it would bevaluable to
explore the long-term eects of the online collaborative ipped
classroom approach on language acquisition and the transferability of
skills. Additionally, investigating the impact of this instructional model
on other language skills and diverse learner populations would contribute
to a more comprehensive understanding of its potential benets.
Finally, as the educational landscape undergoes profound
transformations driven by technological advancements, it is
paramount to recognize the sweeping changes shaping modern
education. ese shis span diverse domains, encompassing
innovative applications of articial intelligence technology, the
adoption of tailored models for digital transformation, and the
exploration of how online platforms impact learner satisfaction
(García-Morales etal., 2021; Zaris and Ehymiou, 2022; Jain etal.,
2023; Widayanti and Meria, 2023). Embracing this broader
perspective, our research ndings naturally align within the dynamic
realm of this educational transformation, oering insights that
resonate with the evolving fabric of contemporary learning.
Despite the valuable insights garnered from this study, it is essential
to acknowledge several limitations. Firstly, the sample size utilized in this
study was relatively small, comprising participants from a specic
educational context in China. It is important to acknowledge that the
relatively modest participant count of 71 EFL students may besubject to
constraints in statistical power, particularly for detecting smaller eect
sizes. While the sample size was chosen to achieve a balance between
practical feasibility and the desire for meaningful statistical analyzes,
future studies with larger cohorts could provide a more robust foundation
for further validating the outcomes observed in this research. Secondly,
the study’s duration was limited to a 12-week period, potentially
Wang 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1255389
Frontiers in Psychology 14 frontiersin.org
constraining the ability to observe any long-term eects of the
instructional intervention. Future research endeavors should consider
implementing the intervention over an extended timeframe to
thoroughly assess the sustainability of the observed benets.
Moreover, it is imperative to recognize that this study relied solely
on quantitative data and employed self-report measures to evaluate
self-regulated learning strategies and online learning behaviors. While
self-report measures are commonly employed, it is crucial to
acknowledge their inherent subjectivity and susceptibility to response
biases. Augmenting the self-report data with objective measures, such
as direct observation or behavioral tracking, would enhance the
robustness and validity of the ndings, enabling a more comprehensive
understanding of learners’ engagement and behaviors. Furthermore, it
is noteworthy that the ndings of this study may have been inuenced
by the specic context in which it was conducted, encompassing factors
such as cultural background, educational system, and institutional
support. ese contextual elements have the potential to impact the
ecacy of the employed instructional approaches. Consequently,
caution should beexercised when attempting to generalize the ndings
to diverse contexts. Future research endeavors should strive to
investigate the eectiveness of online collaborative ipped instruction
in a range of educational settings, thereby enabling a more nuanced
understanding of its applicability.
Data availability statement
e raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will bemade
available by the authors, without undue reservation. Requests to access
these datasets should bedirected to YW, wan[email protected].
Ethics statement
e studies involving humans were approved by Department of
Foreign Language, Liaocheng University Dongchang College,
Liaocheng 252000, Shandong, China. e studies were conducted in
accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.
e participants provided their written informed consent to
participate in this study.
Author contributions
YW: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Visualization,
Writing – original dra, Writing – review & editing.
Conflict of interest
e author declares that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or nancial relationships that could
beconstrued as a potential conict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their aliated organizations,
or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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